Instructions from Professor: You must cite in current APA style with support fro

Instructions from Professor:
You must cite in current APA style with support from at least 2 academic sources within the last 5 years. You should respond to your peers by extending, refuting/correcting, or adding additional nuance to their posts. Must have intext citation and one reference, and 150 words
I need to reply to the below post:
The potential most common sites for Metastasis
The potential most common sites for metastasis on patient J.C with pancreatic cancer include the liver, peritoneum, lungs, and distant lymph nodes. Pancreatic cancer often metastasizes to the liver due to the close anatomical proximity and the hepatic portal circulation, which facilitates tumor cell dissemination (Garajova et al., 2023).
Peritoneal metastasis occurs when cancer cells move from the primary tumor and spread within the peritoneal cavity, leading to ascites and peritoneal carcinomatosis. Lung metastasis can occur through hematogenous spread, where cancer cells travel via the bloodstream to the lungs, forming secondary tumors.
Lastly, distant lymph nodes, such as those in the mediastinum or supraclavicular region, can be involved due to lymphatic drainage pathways from the pancreas. Metastasis to these sites can significantly worsen the prognosis and complicate treatment approaches (Garajova et al., 2023).
Tumor Cell Markers
Tumor cell markers, such as CA 19-9 and CEA, are ordered for patients with pancreatic cancer to diagnosis, assess treatment response, and monitor disease progression (Loveday et al., 2019). CA 19-9, in particular, is commonly elevated in pancreatic cancer and serves as a prognostic indicator. Elevated levels of tumor markers can indicate the presence of cancer, help in staging, and guide treatment decisions.
Additionally, serial measurements of tumor markers can provide information about treatment efficacy and disease recurrence, allowing clinicians to adjust therapeutic interventions consequently.
TNM Stage Classification
The TNM staging system categorizes tumors based on their size and extent of spread (T), involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and presence of distant metastasis (M). This classification is crucial as it helps determine prognosis, guide treatment decisions, and standardize communication among healthcare providers. By accurately staging the tumor, clinicians can adapt treatment strategies, estimate patient outcomes, and facilitate comparison of results across different studies and patient populations (Loveday et al., 2019).
In J.C’s case, the TNM stage classification would provide valuable information about the extent of his pancreatic cancer, guiding the selection of appropriate therapeutic interventions and predicting his prognosis.
Characteristics of Malignant Tumors
Malignant tumors exhibit several characteristic features, including uncontrolled proliferation, invasion into surrounding tissues, and metastatic potential. These tumors often demonstrate abnormal cellular morphology, with variable nuclear size, pleomorphic, and increased mitotic activity. Moreover, malignant cells can evade apoptosis, sustain angiogenesis, and acquire the ability to invade lymphatic and blood vessels, facilitating distant metastasis. Unlike benign tumors, malignant tumors lack encapsulation and demonstrate infiltrative growth patterns, leading to tissue destruction and functional impairment (Patel, 2020).
Carcinogenesis Phase of Metastasis
The process of metastasis involves multiple steps, including local invasion, circulation through blood or lymphatic vessels, extravasation, and colonization at distant sites. During carcinogenesis, as a tumor metastasizes, cancer cells acquire genetic mutations that confer invasive and migratory properties. These alterations disrupt cellular adhesion molecules, promote cytoskeletal rearrangements, and enhance protease activity, facilitating tumor cell dissemination. Additionally, changes in the tumor microenvironment, such as inflammation and angiogenesis, contribute to the metastatic cascade by promoting tumor cell survival and migration to distant organs (Patel, 2020).
Tissue Level Affected
In the case of J.C with pancreatic cancer, the tissue level primarily affected is the epithelial tissue. Pancreatic cancer originates from the ductal epithelium of the pancreas, leading to the formation of ductal adenocarcinoma. Epithelial tissue comprises the majority of the pancreas and lines the pancreatic ducts, where the tumor arises. As the cancer progresses, it infiltrates surrounding epithelial structures and may involve adjacent organs, further demonstrating the epithelial origin of the malignancy (Garajova et al., 2023).
References
Garajová, I., Peroni, M., Gelsomino, F., & Leonardi, F. (2023). A Simple Overview of Pancreatic Cancer Treatment for Clinical Oncologists. Current Oncology, 30(11), 9587–9601. https://doi.org/10.3390/curroncol30110694Links to an external site.
Loveday, B. P., Lipton, L., & Thomson, B. N. (2019). Pancreatic cancer: An update on diagnosis and management. Australian Journal of General Practice, 48(12), 826–831. https://doi.org/10.31128/ajgp-06-19-4957
Patel A. Benign vs Malignant Tumors. JAMA Oncol. 2020; 6(9):1488. doi:10.1001/jamaoncol.2020.2592