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Instructions
For this assignment, write a 3–5 page literature review on misinformation effects, incorporating at least seven peer-reviewed journal articles as sources. At least one article should be a study from an international source (a journal published outside the United States or written by authors from outside the United States) or one that includes non-Western participants. You may use the articles provided in Week 1 research activity, also linked below in the Choose Your Project section of these assignment instructions. For this assignment, download the Literature Review [DOCX] template. Complete your work in this required template before submitting it for grading.
Choose Your Project
Materials will be provided for three different projects inspired by research found in the literature. As part of your preparation for the literature review, look over the materials and the article that inspired them. Choose one that interests you as this will help you form your initial hypothesis. Expect your hypothesis to change based on feedback from your instructor.
There are pre-built materials for three experiments. There are possible variations of design, but choose one of the following. You may not create your own topic or materials.
• Retraction [PDF]: Use a news article and a retraction to a news article on a bank robbery with a questionnaire to measure responses.
• Myth Busting [PDF]: Use a fact sheet to debunk the myth that humans use only 10 percent of their brain with a questionnaire to measure responses.
• False Balance [PDF]: Use two articles, one on the lack of connection between vaccines and autism spectrum disorder and the other on the connection, with a questionnaire to measure responses.
Review the information for your topic in the Word document linked above. Then, read the articles provided for you in the following section of your reading list:
• Research ProjectLinks to an external site..
Write Your Literature Review
Address the following within your literature review. Use the provided Literature Review [DOCX] template. Ensure that each main point of your paper is supported clearly with evidence from your sources. Under some points, there are guiding questions to guide your thinking, but be sure to consult the scoring rubric to make sure you cover all that will be assessed.
• Explain the psychological concepts that were addressed in the research.
o Are there any patterns, themes, or trends that you were able to trace in your research?
• Describe the concepts related to the theory that will be the basis for your research.
o Discuss the value and the limitations of the theoretical concepts.
• Develop a plausible hypothesis that relies on evidence and reasoning. Use the hypothesis from the article related to your study (linked above) as a starting point.
• Use APA style formatting, citations, and references.
Additional Requirements
Submit your literature review as your deliverable for assessment.
You do not need an index or abstract for this paper. Use the Literature Review [DOCX] template.
• Length: 3–5 page typed, double-spaced pages.
• Written communication: Must be free of errors that detract from the overall message.
• Resources and citations: A minimum of seven peer-reviewed journal articles is required. Format according to APA style. Refer to Evidence and APALinks to an external site. for guidance.
• Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.

 

SOLUTION

Literature Review: Psychological Effects of Misinformation and Myth Busting

Psychological Concepts Addressed in Misinformation Research

Misinformation refers to false or misleading information that is presented as fact and subsequently influences beliefs, memory, and decision-making. Psychological research has consistently demonstrated that exposure to misinformation can lead individuals to adopt incorrect beliefs even after corrective information is provided. This phenomenon is often referred to as the continued influence effect, wherein retracted or debunked information continues to affect reasoning and judgments (Lewandowsky et al., 2012).

One core psychological concept underlying misinformation effects is belief perseverance, which describes individuals’ tendency to maintain beliefs even when the evidence supporting those beliefs has been discredited (Anderson et al., 1980). Closely related is confirmation bias, where individuals preferentially attend to information that aligns with existing beliefs while discounting contradictory evidence (Nickerson, 1998). These processes help explain why myths—such as the belief that humans use only 10 percent of their brain—persist despite widespread scientific refutation.

Another key concept is cognitive fluency, the ease with which information is processed. Repeated exposure to misinformation increases processing fluency, making false statements feel more familiar and therefore more believable (Dechêne et al., 2010). Research suggests that even explicit myth-busting efforts can inadvertently reinforce misinformation if the myth itself is repeated without adequate corrective framing (Skurnik et al., 2005).

Across the literature, a consistent pattern emerges: misinformation is robust, resistant to correction, and influenced by both cognitive and motivational factors. Studies show that corrective information is most effective when it provides an alternative explanation, is clearly labeled as false, and avoids unnecessary repetition of the myth (Lewandowsky et al., 2012; Nyhan & Reifler, 2010).

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Theoretical Frameworks Underpinning Misinformation Effects

Theoretical explanations for misinformation effects are grounded primarily in mental model theory and dual-process theories of cognition. Mental model theory proposes that individuals build coherent internal representations of events. When misinformation is removed without replacement, gaps remain in the mental model, leading individuals to rely on the original false information to preserve coherence (Johnson-Laird, 1983; Lewandowsky et al., 2012).

Dual-process theories, such as System 1 and System 2 processing, further explain why misinformation persists. System 1 processing is fast, intuitive, and automatic, making it particularly susceptible to repeated or emotionally salient misinformation. In contrast, System 2 processing is slower and more analytical but requires cognitive effort, which individuals may be unwilling or unable to expend consistently (Kahneman, 2011).

The value of these theoretical frameworks lies in their ability to explain why factual corrections often fail. They highlight that misinformation is not merely a knowledge deficit but a structural issue related to how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. However, a limitation of these theories is that they may underemphasize social and contextual factors, such as trust in sources, cultural beliefs, and social identity, which also play significant roles in misinformation acceptance.

International research supports these theoretical perspectives. For example, Ecker et al. (2017), using Australian participants, demonstrated that even well-designed retractions failed to fully eliminate misinformation effects, suggesting that these cognitive mechanisms operate across cultural contexts.

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Patterns, Themes, and Trends in the Literature

A prominent trend in misinformation research is the shift from simply identifying misinformation effects to testing intervention strategies. Myth-busting approaches that emphasize factual alternatives rather than myth repetition have shown greater effectiveness (Skurnik et al., 2005). Additionally, visual aids, narrative explanations, and warnings prior to misinformation exposure have been found to reduce belief persistence (Cook et al., 2017).

Another recurring theme is the role of prior knowledge and motivation. Individuals with stronger preexisting beliefs or ideological commitments are more resistant to correction, even when presented with high-quality evidence (Nyhan & Reifler, 2010). This suggests that misinformation correction is not purely cognitive but also motivational

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