Arctic Circle
The Arctic Circle is one of two polar circles found on Earth, making up the most northerly latitude in the world. The area north of the Arctic Circle is known as the Arctic, which encompasses the Scandinavian Peninsula, North Asia, North America, and Greenland. The Arctic is almost entirely composed of water and is estimated to make up 20% of the world’s freshwater resource. Much of the Arctic’s water is frozen, forming what is known as the Arctic ice caps. These ice caps significantly impact global climate as they reflect sunlight into space, dispelling solar heat. However, the Arctic Ocean’s dark surface beneath these ice caps absorbs 90% of the sun’s heat, having an adverse warming effect on the ocean that dispels globally. Global warming has resulted in the melting of the Arctic’s ice caps to significant degrees that continue to increase annually. The melting of ice caps reveals more of the ocean’s dark surface, leading to increased solar heat absorption.
As more of the Arctic’s ocean is revealed from beneath these ice caps, it has opened resource extraction opportunities in the region. Within the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Arctic states have begun to increasingly vie for territorial control over the area in hopes of exploiting its reserves of oil and natural gas. It is estimated the Arctic holds 13% of the world’s oil and 30% of its undiscovered natural gas reserves. Access to the region’s resources offers enormous economic opportunities for Arctic states. However, according to international law, the North Pole and the Arctic Ocean cannot be claimed by any sole state.
The Arctic Ocean’s warming has also created vast trading opportunities via the Northern passage. In centuries prior, the Northern Passage was blocked by ice caps, making travel through the route impossible for commercial purposes. However, due to global warming, the Northern Passage has become navigational. The former United States Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo, said the Northern Passage could become the “21st century Suez and Panama Canals” and potentially reduce sea travel from Asia and the West by 20 days. As a result, the Arctic holds significant potential to become increasingly contested over in the coming years, with many experts considering it to be the site of the 21st century’s ‘Cold War’ between the Arctic States.
The Arctic is divided between the eight states that have territorial claims within the area. These states are America, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Canada, Russia, Iceland, and Finland. Canada was the first Arctic state to claim vast land areas in the region in 1935, followed shortly after by the Soviet Union in 1937. The region’s strategic importance increased during the Cold War due to the potential to base submarine-launched nuclear weapons in the area, resulting in the ratified UNCLOS treaty at the end of the Cold War between the Arctic States. However, as global warming reduced ice caps in the region, the treaty has failed to clarify territorial disputes, increasing tensions between the Arctic states that is only expected to increase as more of the Arctic Ocean is released beneath the ice caps.
The geopolitical environment for the Arctic has been substantially affected by the renewal of great power competition. Although there continues to be significant international cooperation on Arctic issues, the Arctic is increasingly viewed as an arena for geopolitical competition among the United States, Russia, and China.
Key Facts
4
Territories Under Dispute
4 Million
Arctic Population
8
Arctic Countries
Arctic States: United States, Canada, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Russia, Iceland, and Finland
Countries Outside of the United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea: United States
Territories Under Dispute: The Northwest Passage, Hans Island, Beaufort Sea, and the Lomonosov Ridge
Arctic Sea Ice Extent: 12.95 million square kilometers (December 2021)
Arctic Sea Ice Minimum: 3.92 million sq km
Arctic Sea Ice Rate of Change: 13.1% decrease per decade
Arctic Indigenous Communities: the Saami in Finland, Sweden, Norway and Russia, Nenets, Khanty, Evenk and Chukchi in Russia, Aleut, Yupik and Inuit (Iñupiat) in Alaska, Inuit (Inuvialuit) in Canada and Inuit (Kalaallit) in Greenland
Arctic Ethnic Groups: 40 different ethnic groups populate the Arctic
The Key Actors
The Arctic Council is the only intergovernmental organization in the Arctic, comprising all eight Arctic states: the United States, Canada, Russia, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. There are six permanent participants representing the multiple Arctic indigenous populations, including the Aleut International Association, the Arctic Athabaskan Council, the Gwich’in Council International, the Inuit Circumpolar Council, the Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North Thirteen, and the Saami Council. Thirteen non-Arctic states have been approved as official observers to the organization to share their expertise and regional information transference. The goal of the organization is to increase cooperation between Arctic states regarding Arctic governance and environmental protection.
The Situation
Classification: Territorial and Resource Dispute
The Arctic is an internationally autonomous zone on the Northernmost Global pole. The area holds a vast amount of natural resources that have become available for exploitation with climate-change-induced melting of the Arctic ice caps. As such, multiples Arctic states have disputed over rights to the Arctic territories to access these resources.
Analyst’s suggestions:
- Coming soon
Similar Humanitarian Crises
- Amazonian Deforestation
- Desertification of the Northern Sahel
- Nile River water right disputes
expected to worsen as Arctic ice caps continue to melt
Ongoing Disputes
December 1973 Onwards:
Hans Island is a small 1.3 kilometer island in the Kennedy Channel of the Nares Strait, found between Canada’s Ellesmere Island and Greenland (A Danish territory). The island is uninhabited and lies equidistant between the two territories, a 1973 treaty between Denmark and Canada could not agree on the status of the island. As recently as April 11, 2012, both states have considered dividing the island in half, but an agreement still has not been reached on the matter.
December 2014 onwards:
Denmark, the Russian Federation and Canada have all asserted that the Lomonosov Ridge is an extension of their respective continental ridges. The territory is highly disputed because rights to the ridge would allow access to the natural resources found in the area’s sea bed. An agreement on rights to the ridge remains unsolved and disputed between the three states.
1969 Onwards:
Canada and the United States have been disputing over which state has the right to control which vessels can enter the Northwest Passage. The passage is recognized as international waters, however, it technically runs through Canadian waters. Canada wishes to limit which vessels can enter the passage in interest of climate change, a nation the US has rejected.
2004 Onwards:
The United States and Canada have disputed over territorial rights to the Beaufort Sea since 2004, when the United States leased eight plots of land below the sea for resource exploitation. In July 2011, negotiations started in Ottawa between the two states but the dispute remains unresolved.
Timeline of Events
1 June 1925: Canadian Amendment to the Northwest Territories Act
In 1925, Canada became the first state to extend its national borders to the Arctic region, up to the North Pole.
15 April 1926: The USSR Declares Territorial Rights to all Lands and Islands between its territory and the North Pole
In 1925, the USSR established a large swath of area as its sovereign territory, claiming all islands and lands between its state and the North Pole as a part of its national territory. The assertion of territorial rights was primarily a response to Canadianclaim of its territory extending from its own sovereign land to the North Pole.
July 1946: Canada Claims Territorial Rights Over Northern Sea Extending to the North Pole
A Canadian Ambassador in Washington, DC, Lester Pearson, published “Canada Looks down North”, in which he attempted to claim territorial rights not only to the islands North of Canada but also the Sea North of Canada between the meridians of Canada’s east and west boundaries, which extends up to the Northern Pole.
28 July 1984: Danish Raise Flag on Disputed Hans Islands
In 1984, Denmark claimed territorial sovereignty over the Hans island. The island is uninhabited but lays equidistant between Denmark and Canada, causing both to submit territory claims over the island.
16 November 1994: The UN Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) enters into force
The convention defines the rights to use the World’s oceans. The convention established a Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, which is highly pertinent to the Arctic.
19 September 1996: Establishment of the Arctic Council:
The 1996 Ottawa Declaration saw the formation of the Arctic Council. The Council includes the Arctic states of Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and America. The Arctic Council was designed to increase cooperation, coordination, and diplomacy among the Arctic States with the involvement of indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants. The Arctic Council has performed studies on climate change’s effects in the Arctic.
20 December 2001: Russia Claims Lomonosov Ridge as an Extension of its Continental Shelf
In 2001, Russia claimed the Lomonosov Ridge under the reasoning that it was an extension of their continental shelf and thus a valid territorial claim. This claim would have awarded Russia nearly-one half of the Arctic Ocean, including the North Pole.
2 August 2007: Russia Claims the North Pole by Planting Russian Flag on Arctic Seabed
In 2007, Russia claimed the Lomonosov Ridge, a large seabed that is estimated to have high levels of natural resources. Russia was the first to enter a territory claim for the ridge, however both Denmark and Canada have followed with their own claims.
December 2013: Canada Announced Territorial Claim over the Lomonosov Ridge
In 2013, Canada announced its territorial claim over the Lomonosov Ridge. The claim contradicts both Denmark and Russia’s claim on the same territory, which is estimated to have high levels of natural resources in its seabed.
16 December 2014: Denmark Submits Territorial Claim over the Lomonosov Ridge
In December, 2014, Denmark officially submitted a territorial claim to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) within the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) for the Lomonosov Ridge. The Danish claim argues that the ridge is an extension of Greenland’s landmass and being that Greenland is a Danish territory so is the Ridge.
23 November 2020: Temperatures in the Arctic much higher than expected
Recent temperatures were an average of 12 degrees Fahrenheit above average for all 7.7 million square miles of the Arctic, demonstrating the effects of climate change that are impacting the Arctic at an accelerated rate.
- 6 April 1909: Admiral Peary plants flag of the United States at the North Pole
- U.S admiral Peary planted an American flag on the North Pole, claiming that America has taken possession of the entire region.
- 1 June 1925: Canadian Amendment to the Northwest Territories Act
- In 1925, Canada became the first state to extend its national borders to the Arctic region, up to the North Pole.
- 15 April 1926: The USSR Declares Territorial Rights to all Lands and Islands between its territory and the North Pole
- In 1925, the USSR established a large swath of area as its sovereign territory, claiming all islands and lands between its state and the North Pole as a part of its national territory. The assertion of territorial rights was primarily a response to Canadianclaim of its territory extending from its own sovereign land to the North Pole.
- 19 July 1926: Canada establishes the Arctic Island Game Preserve
- The Arctic Island Game Preserve was originally designed to protect muskoxen populations for Inuit populations in the region. However, it also established Canada’s territorial right to the Arctic Archipelago.
- 28 December 1945: President Truman established Proclamation 2667, “Policy of the US with Respect to the Natural Resources of the Subsoil and Sea Bed of the Continental Shelf”
- The proclamation sought to preserve and use the natural resources found on America’s continental shelf and affirmed the U.S’s exclusive rights to the resources in its own continental shelf.
- July 1946: Canada Claims Territorial Rights Over Northern Sea Extending to the North Pole
- A Canadian Ambassador in Washington, DC, Lester Pearson, published “Canada Looks down North”, in which he attempted to claim territorial rights not only to the islands North of Canada but also the Sea North of Canada between the meridians of Canada’s east and west boundaries, which extends up to the Northern Pole.
- 22 December 1971: The Nixon Administration establishes National Security Decision Memorandum 144
- The Memorandum considered America’s foreign policy in the Arctic. Nixon decided that he would support international cooperation in the Arctic, rational development to limit adverse risks to the environment, and provide for protection of security interests in the area.
- 13 March 1982: Agreement on the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Canada and the Kingdom of Denmark enters into force
- The Agreement distinguishes the territory between Greenland and Canada, with Greenland being an autonomous territory under Danish sovereignty. However, the agreement did not resolve disputes between the two states over territorial claims to Hans Island.
- 28 July 1984: Danish Raise Flag on Disputed Hans Islands
- In 1984, Denmark claimed territorial sovereignty over the Hans island. The island is uninhabited but lays equidistant between Denmark and Canada, causing both to submit territory claims over the island.
- 11 january 1881: Agreement on Arctic Cooperation between Canada and the United States
- The U.S coast guard crossed the Northern Passages without the formal consent of the Candian government, causing Canada to establish a straight baselines around Canada’s perimeter. The act confirmed that the Northern Passage lays within Canadian territory.
- 14 June 1991: Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS):
- 8 Arctic countries signed the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy in 1991. AEPS is a multilateral, non-binding agreement on environmental protection in the Arctic circle.
- 6 April 1909: Admiral Peary plants flag of the United States at the North Pole
- 16 November 1994: The UN Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) enters into force
- The convention defines the rights to use the World’s oceans. The convention established a Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, which is highly pertinent to the Arctic.
- 19 September 1996: Establishment of the Arctic Council:
- The 1996 Ottawa Declaration saw the formation of the Arctic Council. The Council includes the Arctic states of Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and America. The Arctic Council was designed to increase cooperation, coordination, and diplomacy among the Arctic States with the involvement of indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants. The Arctic Council has performed studies on climate change’s effects in the Arctic.
- 20 December 2001: Russia Claims Lomonosov Ridge as an Extension of its Continental Shelf
- In 2001, Russia claimed the Lomonosov Ridge under the reasoning that it was an extension of their continental shelf and thus a valid territorial claim. This claim would have awarded Russia nearly-one half of the Arctic Ocean, including the North Pole.
- 1 December 2006: Norway Releases its “High North Strategy”
- The report states that Norway’s primary foreign policy focus will be the Arctic in the upcoming years. Norway looks to secure valuable natural resources found in the area.
- 2 August 2007: Russia Claims the north Pole by Planting Russian Flag on Arctic Seabed
- In 2007, Russia claimed the Lomonosov Ridge, a large seabed that is estimated to have high levels of natural resources. Russia was the first to enter a territory claim for the ridge, however both Denmark and Canada have followed with their own claims.
- May 2008: The US Geological Survey (USGS) completed its “Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal: Estimates of Undiscovered Oil and Gas North of the Arctic Circle.”
- The 2008, US Geological Survey estimated that 90 billion barrels of oil, 1,669 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, and 44 billion barrels of natural gas liquids may remain in the Arctic.
- 1 February 2010: US Department of Defense Releases its “Quadrennial Defense Review”
- The 2007 US Department of Defense review states that climate change in the Arctic is significant and urges the department to prepare and adapt to climate change’s effects in the region in future decades. The review recommends possible coordination between the Coast Guard and Department of Homeland Security to address gaps in Arctic communications, awareness, search and rescue, environmental observation, and forecasting capabilities. To achieve such goals the review recommends accession to UNCLOS.
- 27 October 2010: The United Nations Environmental Program Release its “Protecting Arctic Biodiversity: Limitations and Strengths of Environmental Agreements”
- The 2010 UN report urges member states to take more proactive and protective measures in the Arctic to protect the region’s biodiversity, citing significant threats from climate change that continue to threaten the area.
- 7 July 2011: Norway and Russia ratify the Treaty on Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean.
- The 2011 ratification of the Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and Arctic Ocean resolved a four decade long dispute between Russia and Norway over a 175,000 square kilometer area between the two states in the Barents Sea and exists in both their territories. Prior to this ratification both countries were unable to explore oil and gas development in the area, which is expected to contain significant reserves.
- 22 August 2011: Denmark Release “Kingdom of Denmark: Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020”
- The 2011 “Kingdom of Denmark: Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020” announced Denmark’s interest in the Arctic and intentions for the 9 year time span. The main objectives of the strategy are to “ensure a peaceful, secure and safe Arctic, with economic growth and development, with respect to the vulnerable Arctic climate, environment and nature and close cooperation with our international partners.”
- 12-14 October 2013: Arctic Circle’s Inaugural Assembly:
- In October 2013, the Arctic Circle conducted its inaugural Assembly. The meeting included institutional and government representatives, as well as scientists, political and policy leaders, experts, activists, and indigenous people. The Arctic Circle Assembly is designed to increase the international focus on the Arctic.
- December 2013: Canada Announced Territorial Claim over the Lomonosov Ridge
- In 2013, Canada announced its territorial claim over the Lomonosov Ridge. The claim contradicts both Denmark and Russia’s claim on the same territory, which is estimated to have high levels of natural resources in its seabed.
- 16 December 2014: Denmark Submits Territorial Claim over the Lomonosov Ridge
- In December, 2014, Denmark officially submitted a territorial claim to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) within the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) for the Lomonosov Ridge. The Danish claim argues that the ridge is an extension of Greenland’s landmass and being that Greenland is a Danish territory so is the Ridge.
- 14 September 2020: Data reveals that a colossal chunk of ice broke off of Greenland in the last two years:
- A chunk of ice sized 44 square miles was found to have broken off of the Arctic’s largest remaining ice shelf in northeast Greenland. The ice shelf is the second biggest in the world behind Antarctica’s, and its melting has contributed to more than a millimeter rise in sea levels annually.
- 19 October 2020: Coalition of female scientists call for protection of Arctic Peninsula:
- More than 280 female scientists and conservation experts urged for stronger protections of the Arctic Peninsula region in October of 2020. This region is home to penguins, seals, and krill, which is a main staple food for scores of marine animals including fish, birds, and baleen whales.
- 23 November 2020: Temperatures in the Arctic much higher than expected
- Recent temperatures were an average of 12 degrees Fahrenheit above average for all 7.7 million square miles of the Arctic, demonstrating the effects of climate change that are impacting the Arctic at an accelerated rate.
18 February 2021: Scientists say Texas snowstorms are due to the rapid heating of the Arctic
Studies have suggested that the warming of the Arctic due to greenhouse gases in the atmosphere disrupts a natural phenomenon known as the polar vortex. Under normal conditions, the polar vortex keeps cold air contained in the north, but as temperatures rise the vortex can be forced further south, bringing extreme cold temperatures to typically warm areas, like Texas in the U.S.
12 March 2021: Extreme Ice Melt on George VI Ice Shelf
A study lead by the University of Colorado-Boulder found that The George VI Ice Shelf experienced record melting during the 2019-2020 summer season. The George VI Ice Shelf separates Palmer Island From Alexander Island. Alexander Island ownership has been disputed by Britain, Chile, and Argentina.
18 March 2021: PAME Releases Meeting Minutes
PAME (Protection Of the arctic Marine environment). released meeting minutes regarding shipping, marine protected areas, ecosystems approach, marine litter and resource exploration and development within the arctic. the countries of denmark, russia, finland, united states, canada, germany, poland, and korea representatives attended. the meeting covered project proposals and updates to current projects.
28 March 2021: Russian Submarines Surface in Arctic Circle
Three russian nuclear ballistic missile submarines just surfaced through the arctic ice, while completing drills. this has come after the kremlin has increased defense within the arctic area. as climate change leads to melting of ice, more of the arctic region becomes avaible for territory and exploration. The drills and exploration continue to impact other countries looking for territory within the arctic.
18 April 2021: 400 Wind Turbines Are installed at wPD’s nuolivaara wind farm in Finland
WPD, a company that develops, finances and constructs wind and solar projects has just made a deal with nordex to bring wind energy to laplan, just beyond the arctic circle. the wind turbines are specially designed to prevent ice and be able to operate in temperature as low as -30c. the wind farm will provide sustainable energy to the area as well as allow growth in finland’s economy.
25 April 2021: Norway will host biggest exercise in arctic circle since the cold war
Norway will host 40,000 soldiers to train in navy and air force reinforcements. the training exercise comes at a time when tensions between russian and europe are strong. russia has also been seen building up the arctic shoreline, according to NATO and satellite images. Possible implications of Russia within the Arctic include creation of a new trading route, and underground storage of nuclear weapons.
5 May 2021: Heat bombs in the arctic
As the arctic ice melts at an exponential rate, scientists have uncovered one of the reasons for this. warm water from the pacific ocean flows into the arctic and is then trapped underneath the ice and continues swirling around for months or yeats. the increased temperature and understanding of physics have helped scientist more accurately predict when the ice will melt.
20 May 2021: Zombie fires engulfing the arctic circle
Zombie fires, wildfires that never fully extinguish and rise up again in dry weather, are responsible for 1% of fires in the arctic circle. scientists believe that rising temperatures help dry out the ground making it easier for these zombie fires to occur. In june and july 2019, the zombie fires emitted 244 megatons of carbon dioxide.
30 November 2021: The Arctic could get more rain than snow sooner than expected
Parts of the Arctic could be dominated by rain during certain seasons rather than snow earlier than expected, as soon as 2060 or 2070. This could have drastic consequences for temperatures and weather patterns across the globe.
20 May 2022: Climate change is moving the world’s forests north
As changing temperatures warm the Arctic, ice and tundra melts to allow for boreal forests to grow. This changes the terrain of the Arctic as sea ice, which is vital to regulating the Earth’s temperature, increasingly melts as a result of high levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
24 May 2022: Russia suspended from the Arctic Council
As a result of Russia’s continued attack on Ukraine, the nation has been suspended from almost all Arctic cooperation, including the Arctic Council, which is the cornerstone organization of Arctic states. Panelists continue to discuss how Arctic cooperation and addressing of the issue of climate change can go forward without Russia’s participation.
13 June 2022: Canada and Denmark agree on a deal over the disputed Hans Island
Canada and Denmark have resolved a 51-year long dispute over Hans Island, which falls between Greenland and Nunavut in the Arctic Sea. The agreed upon solution divides the island almost exactly in half, with the Greenland side getting slightly more land.
14 June 2022: Finnish Speaker of Parliament says that Finland, Sweden, and Norway should consider joint air defense control
Speaker of the Finnish Parliament, Matti VanHanen, said that geographical neighbors Finland, Sweden, and Norway should consider combining their air defense control jointly in areas north of the Arctic Circle in coming years. This would represent a new territorial and military alliance within the Arctic Circle.
18 August 2022: Greenland’s Indigenous population favors extracting and exporting resources from melting ice sheet
A survey by McGill University of adults in Greenland, where about 90% of the local population is Indigenous, found that about 3 in 4 Greenlanders extracting and exporting sand that has been revealed by melting ice. These results are surprising, as Greenlanders have been hesitant about potential extraction and mining operations on their land in the past.
22 August 2022: Chinese shipping company shuns Russian Arctic waters
The Chinese shipping company COSCO appears to shun Russian Arctic shipping routes, based on the fact that the company has not applied for any sailing permissions with the Russian Northern Sea Route Administration. As a result of Russia’s ongoing invasion of Ukraine, Russian shipping routes in the Arctic have seen increasingly less traffic.
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